With the invention of the motion picture camera by the Thomas Edison company in 1894, the moving picture was born. The unpaved frontier of cinematography and editing would be explored over the next hundred years as film emerged as an art form. The development of the montage would arguably prove to be the filmmakers greatest tool in telling stories on the screen. Sergei Eisenstein described the montage as the combination, “of shots that are depictive, single in meaning, neutral in content- into intellectual contexts and series”. Eisenstein explains that cinema at its core, relies on montage, the juxtaposition of colliding images, to create something “graphically undepictable” (Eisenstein, 30). The concept of parallel montage stems from this, defined in cinema as the alternation of shots occurring in differing geographic locations, in order to emotionally heighten a thematic link (not necessarily explicitly defined) between them. The history of the parallel montage stems back to literature, within the works of Charles Dickens’ novels. Pioneer film director D.W. Griffith would take Dickens’ idea and apply it to the motion picture. His second feature length film, Intolerance, utilized the technique to the extreme, weaving together four separate stories thematically linked by the titular motif. While the film proved to be a massive flop, it set an experimental precedent. The development of the method would become a central component of modern editing and filmmaking practices. In this paper, we will explore the mechanics and history of the parallel montage, along with several modern examples that stretch and develop the technique.
Within his collection of essays, Film Form, Sergei Eisenstein breaks down the mechanics of montage, establishing it as the predominant force of film artistry. He begins by describing it in relation to the Japanese hieroglyph:
“The point is that the copulation (perhaps we had better say, the combination) of two hieroglyphs of the simplest series is to be regarded not as their sum, but as their product, i.e., as a value of another dimension... From separate hieroglyphs has been fused - the ideogram. (Eisenstein 29-30)”
Just as two hieroglyphs seemingly fuse (or using Eisenstein’s words, “collide”) to express an abstract concept, the combination of shots in film are able to express meanings of depth beyond simply existing temporally side-by-side. Rather than filming an event from one single angle of perspective, instead the montage disintegrates “the event [into] various planes (Eisenstein, 34)”. The audience existing as outsiders, piece these fractured shots of the occurrence together, forming congruence. Eisenstein is quick to refute the idea of the shot being a “building block” of montage. Rather than the cinematographer paving out any kind of singular absolute meaning to the montage, he asserts the importance of the individual drawing their own conclusion. Drawing comparisons to the Japanese haiku, the combination of lines of poetry are able to unite under a psychological response. In her essay On Photography, Susan Sontag makes the claim that “photographs are more memorable than motion pictures...” as they are a “neat slice of time”, while film exists as “a stream of underselected images, each of which cancels its predecessor” (Sontag, 13). Eisenstein would disagree with Sontag, as the importance of each shot in context of the other accomplishes what photographs cannot.
The concept of parallel montage (also known as parallel editing) takes these elements of ideogrammatic expression and complicates them through the separation of geographic distance between shots. This complex addition brings new storytelling potential using the temporal and spacial elements involved. Eisenstein explains how, “the superimposition of two elements of the same dimension always arises a new, higher dimension” (Eisenstein, 49). In alternating between shots occurring in different places, the filmmaker heightens the illusion of diegesis within the film, essentially creating a “higher dimension”. This ability to form another fictional world is not exclusively present in film, yet few other mediums are able to capture the frantic sense of reality quite as effectively. Eisenstein attested that parallel montage allows one storyline to “emotionally heighten... the tension and drama of the other.” (Johns, 77). Writer Timothy Johns continued with Eisenstein’s statement, arguing that “paradoxically, the separation of storytelling into parallel lines brings it emotionally together” (Johns, 78). In order to fully understand the context of these quotes, we first need to understand the beginnings of parallel montage historically in cinema, starting with director David Wark Griffith.
Parallel montage would find its’ beginnings within the pages of the novel, Charles Dickens pioneering the form within literature and inspiring Griffith. Dickens used the form within his novels, alternating back and forth between story lines. Rather than simply doing so to move the story along, the intricate balance between plot points allows comparisons to be drawn. In his novel Oliver Twist, Dickens used the method to jump from Oliver’s story to Charley Bates’, in order to highlight his “self interest” and “personal weakness” (Tambling, 44). In doing so, Dickens juxtaposes Bates’ weak moral character against Oliver’s humility.
The second half of this paper will focus and analyze specific examples of parallel montage in film history, starting with Griffith. However it is important to note that Griffith was not necessarily the first director to utilize the technique, yet he receives credit for synthesizing a more modern style of film direction. Quite possibly the finest example of the beginnings of parallel montage lie within the film The Unchanging Sea:
THE UNCHANGING SEA
Griffith tells the tale of a fisherman and his pregnant wife. We watch as the fisherman heads off to sea, bidding his spouse a fond farewell. His subsequent shipwreck, and his wife’s faithful patience waiting for his return form the emotional core of the film. Griffith strategically cuts between the fisherman and his wife. Echoing Odysseus and Penelope of The Odyssey, we watch as the fisherman’s wife fends off potential suitors, watching the coastline closely for the chance of seeing her husband once more. The emotional impact is heightened as we can see the wifes’ direct reaction to her husbands absence. Most films prior to Griffith used static shots with minimal cutting. As Eisenstein explained earlier about the strength of montage is eliciting psychological response in viewers, its’ no wonder that audiences of the film (released in 1910), agreed that “it was a movie unlike any made before” (Sklar, 50).
Griffith’s film A Corner in Wheat highlights another evolution of parallel montage, in order to express dichotomy between thematic ideas:
A CORNER IN WHEAT
This film in particular is representative of the inspiration Griffith received from Dickens. Telling three stories linked by the wheat market, Griffith questions class differences. The narrative jumps between the lower working class farming wheat, the middle class merchants selling it, and the upper class business tycoons. We see the harsh implications of the upper classes’ greedy actions trickling down to those below them. Author Timothy Johns explains:
“...when Dickens and Griffith employ a form of montage - which is to say, sharp editing, back and forth between storylines- they often do so to highlight a polarization of content: a distinction between rich and poor, evil and benevolence, anarchy and order and the like” (Johns, 78). Griffith’s use of montage in A Corner in Wheat is very similar to how Dickens uses it in Oliver Twist, highlighting class differences. Eisenstein makes an interesting claim about how Dickens and Griffith use montage. Forming a “drama of comparisons”, they do not make a direct statement against social injustice (Johns, 78). Rather, Eisenstein levels a criticism at the lack of a true pointed approach. While Dickens and Griffith introduce subjects with heavy themes, they lack true social commentary on them and “as a consequence, historical progress feels blunted” (Johns, 83).
Griffith’s ventures into the feature film helped define him as the father of the modern motion picture, perfecting the parallel montage techniques he practiced with in his shorter works. His controversial film Birth of a Nation used montage to balance an epic scaled story about Southern reconstruction with a smaller, more intimate character driven one. This approach would become common in storytelling, allowing writers and directors to tackle larger issues by grounding them in a human struggle. His second feature, Intolerance, represents his largest leap forward in terms of the parallel montage. The film tells four stories, linked by the theme of intolerance. Griffith jumps around from Ancient Babylon, to the time of Jesus, Renaissance France, and finally to contemporary New York City. Each story is framed around similar issues, in order to express the idea that social injustice may be rooted within human nature itself.
In conclusion, the mechanics of montage rely on the use of dialectical thinking visually expressed through the collision of ideas (the thesis and antithesis). Looking to modern examples of parallel montage, we can see how the method has expanded and developed (in some interesting experimental ways).
In conclusion, the mechanics of montage rely on the use of dialectical thinking visually expressed through the collision of ideas (the thesis and antithesis). Looking to modern examples of parallel montage, we can see how the method has expanded and developed (in some interesting experimental ways).
ROCKY IV
The famous use of montage in Rocky IV is an excellent example of the form in modern cinema:
We watch as Rocky and his rival Ivan Drago train for the coming fight. Director Sylvester Stallone juxtaposes the training methods between the competitors. Rocky representing humanity and natural training methods is depicted. Cutting to Ivan, he is framed around technology, and it is implied that he is using some kind of performance enhancing drug. To further the dichotomy between the characters, Rocky is shown surrounded by his close friends and allies. Ivan on the other hand is depicted in a cold laboratory and working with scientists. Jumping between the two characters, parallel montage allows us to compare the differences and motivations between the men, while driving the plot forward at the same time.
INCEPTION
The 2010 film Inception utilizes parallel montage much like Griffith, weaving together several complicated stories existing on different planes of a dream. Beyond thematic linkage between shots, Nolan’s usage of parallel montage drives the plot forward in a very unique way:
Within this scene, we follow a group of characters within two planes of reality. Cutting back and forth between the car and the hotel, we are treated to a physical link between universes. The characters’ physical bodies exist in both planes, and Nolan is able to amplify the sense of danger as both realms are bombarded by attackers. As the car begins to tumble, Nolan cuts back to the hotel and we watch as gravity begins to shift in proportion to the car. To get a sense of just how intricately the film utilizes parallel montage, one YouTube user created a video that sequences the four levels of dreams, simultaneously playing, rather than intercut as they are portrayed in the film:
TEAM AMERICA: WORLD POLICE
Another modern example of montage that parodies the form appears in the 2004 comedy film Team America: World Police:
Writers and directors Trey Parker and Matt Stone form a pointed satire on the use of the montage in film. The lyrics of the song directly allude to this, jocularly playing with the idea that character development can be rapidly accelerated using montage in film:
“In anything if you want to go, from just a beginner to a pro / You need a montage...”
Parker and Stone even make a reference to the Rocky films’ use of montage. Eisenstein would likely agree with their satire, as using montage in this manner somewhat undercuts its artistic roots while lessening the depth of character development when it simply acts as a plot device. The final line of the song makes another humorous observation, and continues the satire of the method:
"Always fade out in a montage,
If you fade out, it seem like more time
Has passed in a montage"
THE SOCIAL NETWORK
Within the 2011 docu-drama The Social Network, parallel montage is efficiently used to move the plot forward while employing Eisenstein’s idea of the collision of images to draw psychological response. Interplaying shots of Mark coding the website and blogging within a montage, we are brought into the mind of a programmer. Fincher conveys his inner monologue through writing and hacking as he develops the website. He cuts to the object of Mark's obsession; the fraternity clubs, using parallel montage to criticize the frivolity of their partying lifestyle against the brilliance of Zuckerberg's programming binge. This example in particular strikes a balance between the plot acceleration Team America satirizes, with Eisenstein’s more idealized view of montage.
CONCLUDING STATEMENT
In conclusion, we looked at the technical mechanics that utilize a dialectical thinking on the screen through parallel montage. Presenting a thesis and antithesis and colliding them with imagery, a new concept arises. As Eisenstein explained it was not their “sum” but their “product”, representing a synthesis of abstract concepts. Charles Dickens and D.W. Griffith were crucial to bringing the method onto the film screen, and developing the form to its modern capacity. Looking to contemporary examples, we can see the potential for experimentation it provides the filmmaker with. Parallel editing brings new possibilities to the screen, capturing the wild speed of reality and compounding it with the omniscience of existing in multiple places at once.
